Module_2

=Module 2: Fundamentals of Educational Research 2.1 Overview and Objectives=

Overview of Research
Research can be categorized in several ways depending on its application and the particular discipline in which it is being applied (education, medicine, agriculture, etc). The three main types of research funded through federal programs are basic, applied, and developmental research. The federal governments defines these types of research as: ** Federal Definitions of Basic Research, Applied Research, and Development ** || ** Pages 8–9 of Section 84, OMB Circular No. A–11 (2006) @http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/circulars/a11/current_year/s84.pdf ** || **//Basic//** research is defined as systematic study directed toward fuller knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific applications towards processes or products in mind. Basic research, however, may include activities with broad applications in mind.


 * //Applied//** research is defined as systematic study to gain knowledge or understanding necessary to determine the means by which a recognized and specific need may be met.

//**Development**// research is defined as systematic application of knowledge or understanding, directed toward the production of useful materials, devices, and systems or methods, including design, development, and improvement of prototypes and new processes to meet specific requirements. || In most cases universities define their research as either //**basic or applied research**//. In education most research that is conducted is applied research.

=2.2 What is Research and the Process= Research is defined by Webster's dictionary as a "diligent search or inquiry; scientific investigation and study to discover facts." Scientific research is further defined as the "systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena; truth ascertained by observation, experiment, and induction; ordered arrangement of facts known under classes or heads; theoretical knowledge as distinguished from practical; knowledge of principles and rules of invention, construction, mechanism, etc. as distinguished from art." > Wolfram (2002) stated that underneath chaos are rules (e.g., a cell in a hexagonal grid becomes black whenever it has exactly one black neighbor). One of the hardest concepts for graduate student is to understand what is meant by the term "research", specifically for this course. In this course the concept of research does not have a broad or loose meaning. Going to the library to gather information regarding a specific topic from secondary sources such as books and journals would not be considered scientific research. //**For this course "research" always involves the scientific research process.**// Educational researchers must apply the research process when conducting research. The //initial stages// of the formulating a research study involves: Please take special note of Figure 1.4 //The Research Process// on page 19 of your textbook. 1. Selection of problem and formation of a hypothesis/research question 2. Review of the research literature 3. Development of the design and research methodology 4. Data collection 5. Quantitative (statistical) or qualitative analysis 6. Interpretation of results & conclusions. //**We are going to go through the above procedures one by one throughout the semester. When you learn each topic, you can follow step by step to construct your final project.**// The writing assignment due in week four will be to identify a research problem and a research question(s) with clear definition of terms. This assignment will be incorporated into your final Research Proposal due towards the end of the semester. We will begin drafting and formulating our research questions within the next two weeks.
 * **Research is the //scientific// process of //searching// and //re-searching// for //truth//.** The "truth" in social sciences refers to //proven// theory or practice. The truth rarely, if at all, exists. Any research study can only hope for establishing a //tentative truth//, which waits to be falsified. We are constantly searching and re-searching for truth because truth can only be //approximated//, not reached. The process of truth-finding is scientific if the following criteria are met:: collection of empirical evidence, control of threats, and generalizability of findings.
 * **There are some distinctions between truth and the appearance of truth.** For example, Historian Alder stumbled on a 200-year-old secret: the meter defined as one ten-millionth of the distance between the pole and the equator was in error. **//"Precision is a quest on which travelers journey halfway to their destination, and then halfway again and again and again, never reaching finality."//**
 * **Finding Truth in Chaos**
 * Gleick (1987): An imbedded pattern (the Mandlebrot Bug)
 * We may ask the following questions:
 * 1) How can truth be expected or sought when all we see is chaos on the surface?
 * 2) Do you believe in underlying rules in explaining chaotic surface phenomena? Can you think of an example?
 * 3) What implication does this snow flake formation rule have on educational research?
 * **Chaos Theory will help us to answer these questions.** The Implications of Chaos Theory are telling us that given the complexity of human learning, difficulty in discovering truth may be an unavoidable fact. Whatever "truth" we do discover at a local level may be limited in its generalizability to a global level. However, underneath the chaotic surface, //a system of recurring patterns, i.e., the truth,// may exist. Therefore, to find truth under the chaos, larger-scale and longer-term research is necessary if predictability is of interest. Exceptions to common laws should not be neglected and disputed as "errors."
 * identifying a problem in order to conduct research related to that problem,
 * developing a research question or hypothesis that can be plausibly answered, and
 * clearly defining terms.
 * The typical research process consists of the following basic steps: **

=2.3 Philosophical Issues and Scientifically-Based Research (SBR)= Over the last several years there has been much debate over the types of research designs and disagreements about the lack of rigor conducted in educational research. To combat the "awful reputation" of education research, the 2002 //No Child left Behind// //Act// mandated that education research involve: The summation of the mandate was to determine that randomized experiments were the "gold standard" of research methodology. Randomized sampling, as you will learn later in the course, involves assigning students to different interventions randomly which is nearly impossible in common educational settings. In addition, since the research question drives the research methodology it meant only questions that could be answered with randomized experiments could be asked. Therefore, the debate rages on in regards to the "best" research methodologies in education.
 * 1) Empirical methods to collect data ("Show me the proof!")
 * 2) Rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures for data collection (quality of data)
 * 3) Replication and generalizability across different settings (utility of research findings)
 * 4) Preference for randomized experiments and peer-reviewed publications

Further Thoughts on SBR

 * Feuer, Towne, & Shavelson (2002): "Experimentation is still the single best methodological route to ferreting out systematic relations between actions and outcomes," but "no method is good, bad, scientific, or unscientific by itself. Rather, **it is the appropriate application of method to a particular problem that enables judgments about scientific quality"** (p. 8).
 * Pierre (2002): SBR narrowly defines //science// as positivism and //methodology// as quantitative.
 * Berliner (2002): The complexity of educational research defies evidence-based practices in education.

Redefining SBR: Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002

 * Eisenhart, M., & Towne, L. (2003, p. 35):
 * The best approach to assessing causal effectiveness is still experimentation
 * Experimental, or more broadly, quantitative, methods are not the only "scientific" methods
 * Murray, B. (2002). Wanted: politics-free, science-based education. //Monitor on Psychology//, //33//(8), 52-53. (Available at: //www.apa.org/monitor/sep02/wanted.html//)
 * Slavin, R. E. (2002). Evidence-based education policies: Transforming educational practice and research. //Educational Researcher//, //31//(7), 15-21. (Available at: //http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Journals_and_Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/3107/3107_02DewittSlavin.pdf//)
 * Educational Researcher, Nov. 2002 issue (//@http://www.aera.net/publications/?id=438//)
 * An extensive reading (no need to do an intensive reading) will help you to understand the key points and the definition changes of SBR.

=2.4 Why Do Research and Who Would Make a Good Researcher=

Purposes of doing research:

 * //Extrinsic values//
 * Material rewards such as higher pay, career promotion, degree requirement
 * Psychological rewards such as professional recognition and peer pressure
 * //Intrinsic values//
 * The simple joy of knowing and discovering
 * The inner drive to be the best at whatever you do (practitioner as researcher)
 * The noble cause of bringing welfare to mankind (e.g., How can we make our schools a better place for learning?)

To be good researchers:
Persons with the following attributes are more likely to become successful researchers:
 * //Intellectual skills// (e.g., reasoning, analysis, synthesis)
 * //Personality traits// (e.g., inquisitive, creative, meticulous, persistent, open-minded, critical, intrinsically motivated, honest, moral)

=2.5 Quantitative verses Qualitative Research=

** Quantitative ** || ** Qualitative ** || Both are systematic in their approach || Objective || Subjective || Deductive || Inductive || Generalizable || Not generalizable || Numbers || Words || Table: Comparison of features of Quantitative and Qualitative approaches to research

Objective or Subjective :
Quantitative and qualitative are both systematic designs. As mentioned earlier, following the research process is a defining aspect of research. Among researchers it is commonly viewed that quantitative research is more objective, whereas qualitative research is more subjective. Quantitative research involves gathering, analyzing and interpreting quantitative data which allows the researcher to maintain a higher level of objectiveness and separation. In qualitative research the researcher is often the “instrument” to gather the data and is intimately involved in the research setting and circumstances as part of the research process. For example, consider a research study of the amount of time students take to complete math tests in elementary schools within a school district. A quantitative study, measuring how long students take on a math test, can be purely objective. However if the researcher wants to explore how elementary students feel about the time to take math tests, they would have to communicate and interact with the students and make **judgments** about the way these students responded to the questions they had presented to them. If the researcher asked the student "how are you feeling about the amount of time it takes you to take a math test?" they would almost certainly document the students’ non-verbal behaviors as well as document their verbal response; in this way the researcher is adding a subjective element to the study.

Deductive or Inductive:
Quantitative research often tests theory and therefore is inclined to be deductive. Qualitative research often generates theory and is inclined to be more inductive. Using the test time example above, the quantitative approach might test the hypothesis that "elementary students in the district take an average of not more than one hour to complete their math tests". A qualitative approach which explores the feelings of students who take an excessive amount of time to complete a math test which may generate the theory that "elementary students who require extended time to complete a math test experience more test anxiety resulting in a lower performance on the test".

Generalizable or Non-generalizable:
Quantitative designs of research are more suitable for producing results that can be generalized. Using our test time example, we should find that, at least for the discipline of mathematics in elementary levels, the results of the quantitative study tend to hold true. Under the conditions that the research was conducted in a suitable manner using appropriate sampling techniques of course. In contrast, qualitative studies often produce results that are less likely to be generalizable. This is due to the current circumstances or specific conditions of the sample used at the time of the study. Feelings change more easily and are often influenced by our own particular set of circumstances even in regards to test-taking. Even if data from the same group of students was obtained by a researcher on another day, they may attain different results. As a rule, it is problematic to generalize with qualitative results.

Numbers or Words:
The most obvious difference between quantitative research and qualitative research is that quantitative research uses data that are specified in the mode of numbers or that can be transformed into numbers. Data that cannot be formed into numbers are then considered qualitative. (Note that qualitative data can sometimes be handled in such a way as to produce quantitative data. e.g. the researcher exploring feelings of students can analyze the responses in clusters that are negative or positive so as to produce a figure/percentage of negative student and positive student feelings). Therefore, **objectivity**, **deductiveness**, **generalizability** and **numbers** are features often associated with quantitative research. When a researcher selects their approach to a study it should be a reflection of which approach is most suitable for the research question being asked or topic. However it is also reasonable to suggest that it also reflects the bias of the researcher. The majority of medical research is quantitative (and considered to produce "hard", generalizable results) while a considerable amount of education research is qualitative (and considered to produce "soft" results).

Which is better for education quantitative or qualitative?
Depends. There has been a lot of debate about whether or not educators should aspire to do more quantitative research which tends to be generalizable. Educators will argue that teaching and learning is about people in specific circumstances and is too individualized, therefore research findings about them cannot be generalized. Nevertheless theories about the ways people teach and learn can be formulated in specific conditions. Others have argued that educators lack the statistical skills to undertake quantitative research and they avoid this weakness by doing qualitative research instead. It is reasonable to accept an element of truth on both sides of the dispute. What we should do is focus on what is the appropriate method to use for studying particular problems or aspects in education. Sometimes quantitative research is going to be the most appropriate approach in studying a particular subject.

Major types of Quantitative Research
Types of quantitative research include:
 * Experiments (Randomized and quasi-experimental)
 * Single-subject experimental research
 * Correlational research
 * Causal-comparative research
 * Survey research

Major types of Qualitative Research
Types of qualitative research include:
 * Case study
 * Grounded theory
 * Phenomenology
 * Ethnography
 * Historical

=2.6 Research Publications & APA Style=

Purposes of Research Proposal

 * Plan out the steps involved in conducting the research.
 * Help make the design more focused and organized.
 * Anticipate problems and address these problems early on.
 * Communicate to others for funding or degree requirements.

Differences between Proposal and Report:
A research proposal is different from a research report because a proposal is a plan for doing a research while a report is the writing to report what has been done. The key different points are as follows:
 * A proposal states what will be done in the future tense. A report describes what was done in the past tense.
 * A proposal includes only the Introduction, Literature Review, and Methods sections. A report also includes Results, Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Both should include References (or Bibliography) and any appendixes. Please refer to the Textbook for the examples of research proposals at the end of Chapter 24.

Suggested Format for Research Proposal
//Note//: The above format is only a guideline; specific format may vary depending on purpose or funding agency.
 * //Preliminaries:// Title page, Table of Contents (if long), date
 * //Introduction:// Background, Problem, Significance, Purpose, Questions and/or Hypotheses, Definitions
 * //Literature Review:// A separate section by itself and/or integrated into the Introduction section. Provides theoretical framework and rationale for the proposed study.
 * //Methods:// Research Design, Sampling, Instrument, Procedure, Analysis, Threats, Controls and Limitations, Timeline.
 * //Recommendations:// Suggest follow-up study to address current limitations.

Additional Components in a Research Paper

 * //Results:// Present the facts (what was actually found).
 * //Discussion:// Interpret the findings in light of the controls and limitations (whether the findings support the hypothesis and their implications).
 * //Conclusions:// Summary of major findings in light of research questions or hypotheses.

APA Publication Style
APA is a writing style. When we write a paper we are required to follow a certain kind of writing format, such as APA style for educational research papers. It is very important for us to know how to write in a professional style. If you write a paper using the wrong format, it won't be accepted for publication.
 * Unless otherwise specified, most educational/social/behavioral studies follow the American Psychological Association (APA) publication style.
 * Refer to //APA Publication Manual (5th edition)// for details.
 * **//Distinguishing features of APA style include its references section and no vertical lines in tables//**. At the current stage, the most important thing we need to know is that how to cite from others' papers in text and list the references at the end of our paper. For more references about APA style, please use the following resources.

APA Website
http://www.apastyle.org/pubmanual.html > http://library.ucf.edu/Reference/Guides/Citation.asp > 1. http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPA.html 2. http://library.duke.edu/research/citing/
 * **UCF Library Resources on APA**
 * **Other Library Resources on APA**

Critiquing Research Papers:
To be a researcher, we should be able to evaluate others' research studies. When evaluating others' work, we should follow the guidelines of doing research. To critique research papers, we need to bring a mental set of open skepticism, and not take on blind faith simply because of authoritative figures, words in print, or majority vote. There are some great resources to help you with paper critiques as follows.

Resources:

 * Meltzoff, J. (1998). Critical thinking about research.
 * McMillan, J.H., & Wergin, J. F. (2002). Understanding and evaluating educational research (2nd ed.).
 * Girden, E.R. (2001). Evaluating research articles (2nd ed.).
 * Pyrczak, F. (2003). Evaluating research in academic journals (2nd ed.).

Format of Critiquing Research Papers

 * Introduction
 * Writer's position
 * Clear statement of questions and purposes
 * Method section
 * Design
 * Instrumentation
 * Sampling
 * Quality of data
 * Data analysis
 * Discussion of results
 * Finding answering research questions

Purposes of Research Proposal

 * Plan out the steps involved in conducting the research.
 * Help make the design more focused and organized.
 * Anticipate problems and address these problems early on.
 * Communicate to others for funding or degree requirements.

Differences between Proposal and Report:
A research proposal is different from a research report because a proposal is a plan for doing a research while a report is the writing to report what has been done. The key different points are as follows:
 * A proposal states what will be done in the future tense. A report describes what was done in the past tense.
 * A proposal includes only the Introduction, Literature Review, and Methods sections. A report also includes Results, Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations. Both should include References (or Bibliography) and any appendixes. Please refer to the Textbook for the examples of research proposals at the end of Chapter 24.

Suggested Format for Research Proposal for Requesting Funding
//Note//: The above format is only a guideline; specific format may vary depending on purpose or funding agency.
 * //Preliminaries:// Title page, Table of Contents (if long), date
 * //Introduction:// Background, Problem, Significance, Purpose, Questions and/or Hypotheses, Definitions
 * //Literature Review:// A separate section by itself and/or integrated into the Introduction section. Provides theoretical framework and rationale for the proposed study.
 * //Methods:// Research Design, Sampling, Instrument, Procedure, Analysis, Threats, Controls and Limitations, Timeline.
 * //Recommendations:// Suggest follow-up study to address current limitations.

Additional Components in a Research Paper

 * //Results:// Present the facts (what was actually found).
 * //Discussion:// Interpret the findings in light of the controls and limitations (whether the findings support the hypothesis and their implications).
 * //Conclusions:// Summary of major findings in light of research questions or hypotheses.

=2.7 Activities=

2.7. Determining the Research Problem and Drafting the Research Question
Throughout the semester you will work individually or with a group on the Final Research Proposal paper. This particular activity involves selection of your problem and the initial development of your research question. Identifying a problem and developing a clear and concise research question is critical. If your question is too broad or too narrow, you will find the literature review component and developing the design of your research methodology difficult. This activity will take a couple of weeks and even then you may find that your question may need to be modified later in the research process. **The results of this activity will be incorporated into your final paper and will take several iterations.** Your assignment this week is to post in the Discussions area: 1). a brief description of the problem and its significance in the field education you or your group will be addressing (no more than two paragraphs), and 2). a draft research question. If you are in a group, then select one person to submit one posting for your group. Please list all the names of those on your team in your posting. This is a draft of your question. My goal is to respond to each individual or group with comments and suggestions for your consideration and to help each student learn to evaluate the research questions you will encounter when conducting your literature reviews. In addition, I hope to facilitate the research process to help you avoid problems and the frustrations that can come later as a result from trying to work with an incomplete or bad research question. For guidance in developing a research question, refer to page 29 of your textbook for the "Characteristics of Good Research Questions."

Note:
If you are planning to write a thesis or a dissertation as part of your program of study, use this Final Research Paper assignment as the beginning of developing your own thesis or dissertation.